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Habitats Regulations Appraisal (HRA) on the Firth of Forth - A Guide for developers and regulators
Introduction
The purpose of this guide is to help developers and regulators meet the requirements of the Habitats Regulations on the Firth of Forth when first considering proposals. It does this by presenting the multiple protected areas present in the Firth of Forth and explaining the habitats regulations appraisal process. Then presenting information on qualifying features, explaining basic principles of ecology, and the most important impact pathways, while identifying key activities and pressures considered capable of affecting qualifying features.
It considers the activities involved in carrying out projects on the Firth of Forth that affect qualifying features of its associated European sites. We hope it will help in making decisions about projects, including how to avoid or mitigate impacts on European sites before proposals become so defined that solving problems is more expensive and difficult, by introducing broad principles to consider. Links to formal guidance are provided throughout this document and these should be used when carrying out Habitats Regulation Appraisal (HRA).
The Firth of Forth area contains several European sites, including:
- Firth of Forth SPA
- Forth Islands SPA
- Imperial Dock Lock, Leith SPA
- Isle of May SAC
- Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrew’s Bay Complex SPA
Nearby or adjacent European sites that may also lead to a requirement for HRA of proposals in the Firth of Forth include:
- River Teith SAC
- Firth of Tay & Eden Estuary SAC
- Moray Firth SAC
- Berwickshire and North Northumberland Coast SAC
- St. Abb’s Head to Fast Castle SPA
Although these sites are all out-with the Firth of Forth, they are designated for mobile species such as fish, dolphins, seals and birds which may also use the Firth of Forth for foraging, resting, roosting, breeding.
Habitats Regulation Appraisal
Under the Habitats Regulations, decision makers (known as competent authorities in the legislation), can only agree to development proposals which are unconnected with the nature conservation management of the site, after having confirmed that they will not affect the integrity of the European site. The process of coming to this judgement is commonly referred to as Habitats Regulations Appraisal (HRA). If this is not the case and there are no alternative solutions, the proposal can only be allowed to proceed if there are imperative reasons of over-riding public interest (IROPI)
Development in and around the Firth of Forth often has potential to affect European qualifying features and therefore requires HRA. The size and diversity of the European sites which could be affected by development on or around the Firth of Forth means that assessment of potential impacts can seem complex and daunting. This guide will make HRA simpler by presenting common themes and issues which can help to focus thinking when considering impacts. Recent EC guidance has highlighted that many of the delays and problems encountered in HRAs, and Appropriate Assessments are caused by incomplete or deficient information gathering and provision, meaning competent authorities cannot confirm that there are no adverse effects on site integrity. The following are EU guidance on Article 6 (of the Habitats Directive) on the protection and management of European sites, and guidance for a range of sectors:
- Managing Natura 2000 sites, The provisions of Article 6 of the ‘Habitats’ Directive 92/43/EEC (EU 2019 43)
- Guidance document on wind energy developments and EU nature legislation (EU 2021 74)
This guidance document is intended to help with the collating of information to support HRAs in the area of the Firth of Forth.
There are some key things to consider at the earliest opportunity.
- What is the development in its entirety?
- Could works, through activities and related pressures, involve impact pathways to the qualifying features of European sites?
- If so, can they be modified in location, scale, nature or timing to avoid the impact pathway entirely?
To consider these issues, it is helpful to have a basic understanding of the qualifying species’ ecological requirements and how they might be affected by development. By ecology we mean breeding, lifecycles, diet and habitat. We hope that the species accounts in this document will help provide guidance on both the ecology and sensitivities of these qualifying features.
Impact Pathways
With such a large site, there are many types of possible impact pathways which can occur through human-related activities and their related pressures. For example:
- industry including harbours, offshore energy, oil rig repair and decommissioning sites, and their pressures including disturbance, displacement, collision, loss or damage to habitats and prey supporting habitats
- dredging and disposal and their pressures including damage of supporting habitat, smothering of prey supporting habitat, water clarity changes
- exploitation of natural resources and reclamation for industrial uses and their pressures including colonisation by non-native invasive species, habitat loss or deterioration, and reductions in prey abundance.
- leisure activities (onshore and offshore) and their pressures including disturbance, vehicle tracking and trampling
Climate change
Where we understand effects of climate change are likely to affect European site features, this must be borne in mind and considered when carrying out an HRA. The Scottish coast is exposed to climate change pressures due to effects of rising sea level, rising land and sea temperatures, increasing storms and waves, and rainfall changes on land affecting freshwater input and salinity in coastal areas These climate changes will place additional pressures on qualifying species and supporting habitats of European sites in the Firth of Forth area. For example, seabird and marine mammal foraging success and behaviour could be affected by geographic shifts in the presence of prey fish species in Scottish waters. In addition, loss of supporting habitat, such as ground vegetation, due to rising land temperatures could affect the breeding success of some wader species.
See the latest Naturescot advice on climate change impacts on species and habitats; Impacts on the coast; Present and future sea-levels and also coastal adaptation guidance.
Ecosystem Services
The Forth is the most substantial estuary on the east coast of Scotland. It stretches around 55 miles between the flood plain around Stirling and Kincardine to the open sea and cliffs characteristic of the mouth of the Firth, with Fife Ness in the north and North Berwick to the south. In addition to its marine waters, the Firth of Forth also includes a mosaic of coastal habitats and settlements that support a wide range of species. The Firth of Forth and its qualifying features provide ecosystem services, which provide benefits for both people and nature. For example, the diverse mud, sand and gravel marine habitats of the Firth of Forth support provisioning services of fish and shell-fish, and maintaining services of carbon storage. The large numbers of inshore wintering waterfowl, and both breeding and non-breeding seabirds within the Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA provide supporting services of nutrient cycling and biomass production. The Atlantic salmon of the River Teith SAC provide cultural services through tourism, recreation, and opportunities for connection with nature.
Habitats Regulations Appraisal (HRA)
European Sites
European Sites encompass the network of areas (Special Protection Areas and Special Areas of Conservation) originally set up to conserve key natural habitats and species which are rare, endangered, or vulnerable in the European Community. Following EU exit the network continues in the UK as the ‘National Site Network of European Sites’. Due to their international importance, European sites receive protection from development and other regulated activities (including general permitted development rights) in Scotland through both the Conservation (Natural Habitats, &c.) Regulations 1994, known as the ‘Habitats Regulations’ and policy. The network is not, however, a series of strict nature reserves where all human activities are excluded; instead the emphasis is on ensuring that the management of European sites is sustainable while maintaining or securing the restoration of the conservation status of qualifying species and habitats.
The HRA procedure
Habitats Regulations Appraisal is a precautionary and rigorous procedure required by the ‘Habitats Regulations’ when consenting a plan, project or proposal, e.g. under the Planning Acts. The HRA procedure must be applied to any plan or project that might affect the qualifying features of any European site; this includes plans and projects outside a European site. It provides an opportunity to consider appropriate mitigation that can reduce impacts, avoid adverse effects, and permit plans or projects to proceed having taken full account of the protected features of a European site. The HRA comprises a series of stages, and is explained in full in our Habitats Regulations Appraisal Guidance. The HRA stages (1-6) look to assess 3 key tests:
- Is the plan or project directly connected with or necessary to site management for nature conservation?
- Is the plan or project likely to have significant effect on the site?
- Can it be ascertained that the proposal will not adversely affect the integrity of the site?
![Full description to follow next](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2022-06/Revised%20circular%206-95%20with%20amendments.png?itok=GWwUzKwp)
From revised Circular 6/95 with amendments.
Q: Stage 1. What is the plan or project? Move to stage 2.
Q: Stage 2. Is the plan or project directly connected with or necessary to site management for nature conservation (preferably as part of a fully assessed and agreed management plan)?
If "Yes" process complete and consent may be granted. If "No" move to stage 3.
Q: Stage 3. Is the plan or project (either alone or in combination with other plans or projects) likely to have significant effect on the site?
If "No" process complete and consent may be granted. If "Yes" move to stage 4.
Stage 4. Undertake appropriate assessment of implications in view of site’s conservation objectives. Move to stage 5.
Q: Stage 5. Can it be ascertained that the proposal will not adversely affect the integrity of the site?
If "Yes" process complete and consent may be granted. If "No" move to stage 6.
Q: Stage 6. Are there alternative solutions?
If "Yes" consent must not be granted. If "No" move to stage 7.
Q: Stage 7. Would a priority habitat or species be affected adversely?
a. If "No" move to stage 8. Q: Stage 8. Are there imperative reasons of overriding public interest?
i. If "No" consent must not be granted.
ii. If "Yes" consent may be granted. Any necessary compensatory measures will be required.
b. If "Yes" to would a priority habitat or species would be adversely affected move to stage 9.
Q: Stage 9. Are there serious health or safety considerations, or benefits of primary importance to the environment?
i. If "Yes" consent may be granted. Any necessary compensatory measures will be required.
ii. If "No" consent may only be granted for other imperative reasons of overriding public interest, following consultation with Scottish Ministers. Any necessary compensatory measures will be required.
In stage 3 of the HRA process the Competent Authorities (i.e. the body responsible for consenting the proposal in question) are required to make a judgement if the plan or project is likely to have a significant effect (LSE) on a European site, either alone or in-combination with other plans and projects (Stage 3). The test for likely significant effect acts as a simple but very precautionary filter to exclude from further assessment, any plans or projects which are not capable of having a significant effect. To help clarify this the Waddenzee Judgement (para 45 p19/20) says there is a Likely Significant Effect, “…if it cannot be excluded, on the basis of objective information, that it will have a significant effect on that site”, and as such there is a high likelihood that many projects are likely to have significant effects which require further consideration. European case law states that mitigation cannot be considered at this stage, although we recognise that some measures that avoid a significant effect will be intrinsic to some projects. For more information see the handling of mitigation in Habitats Regulations Appraisal following the People over Wind CJEU judgement.
If the answer is yes, the plan or project is likely to have a significant effect on the site, they need to carry out an appropriate assessment (AA) of a plan or project, this is stage 4. European guidance states that Competent Authorities must judge proposals on a case-by-case basis because it should be recognised that what may be significant in relation to one site may not be in relation to another.
In stage 5 of the HRA the Competent Authority must come to a conclusion as to whether there are no adverse effects on the integrity of the European site. This conclusion must be reached in view of the conservation objectives of each of the sites’ qualifying features. The conservation objectives (COs) can be thought of as ecological yardsticks against which to assess the effects of proposals and apply to each qualifying species or habitat of a European site. The COs can be found on Sitelink. On Sitelink qualifying feature conservation objectives are provided within Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) documents for marine SACs, Conservation Advice Packages (CAP) for coastal and river SACs, and Conservation Objectives or CMA documents for SPAs.
The Competent Authority must consult NatureScot over their appropriate assessment and have regards to our comments. Further help and advice on HRA including links to useful guidance, court cases, legislation, and other websites can be found on the HRA page.
HRA in the Firth of Forth area
The Firth of Forth area contains several European sites, including:
- Firth of Forth SPA
- Forth Islands SPA
- Imperial Dock Lock, Leith SPA
- Isle of May SAC
- Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Between them they contain dozens of qualifying features, mainly bird species, but also mammal and habitat features.
Nearby or adjacent European sites that may also lead to a requirement for HRA of proposals in the Firth of Forth include:
- River Teith SAC
- Firth of Tay & Eden Estuary SAC
- Moray Firth SAC
- Berwickshire and North Northumberland Coast SAC
- St. Abb’s Head to Fast Castle SPA.
Although these sites are all out-with the Firth of Forth, they are designated for mobile species such as fish, dolphins, seals, and birds which may also use the Firth of Forth for foraging, resting, roosting, breeding.
The information required
The breadth, content, and level of information required for an HRA depends upon the individual circumstances of each case. There can be a perception that the HRA process is complicated; however, the level of detail should reflect the complexity of the case and be sufficient to allow the Competent Authority to determine beyond reasonable scientific doubt that there are no adverse effects on site integrity. This could include mitigation within plans and proposals with the aim to reduce the level of impacts on European sites. A HRA need not therefore be a difficult or lengthy process when the issues involved are straightforward. It is the proposer of the plan or project who must supply the relevant information to the Competent Authority to carry out the HRA.
Determining that there are no adverse effects on site integrity
At stage 5 of the HRA, for a plan or project to be consented, the appropriate assessment must ascertain that the plan or project will not adversely affect the integrity of a European site. It is important to remember that the test is whether the plan or project will not adversely affect the integrity of a European site, not whether it will. Conclusions must be made on the basis of there being no reasonable scientific doubt as to the absence of adverse effects. Each case will be judged on its own merits.
The integrity of the European site only applies to the qualifying features and is directly linked to the conservation objectives for each feature. Depending on the ‘condition status’ of a feature, (that is whether the condition status is favourable or unfavourable), this will have a bearing on that feature’s Conservation Objectives If a plan or project does not undermine the conservation objectives, then the integrity of the site should be maintained or, where relevant, have the ability to be restored. Conversely, if any of the conservation objectives could be undermined, it would not normally be possible to ascertain that the integrity of the site would not be adversely affected.
If it can be concluded that the proposal will not adversely affect the integrity of a European site, permission may be granted. If not, or there is uncertainty, permission must be refused (subject to exceptions, see HRA guidance stages 6-9). A competent authority may add legally enforceable conditions to a consent to ensure no adverse effect on the integrity of a European site.
Exceptional Circumstances
Stages 6-9 are only considered in exceptional circumstances where it cannot be ascertained that the plan or project will not adversely affect the integrity of a European site. These exceptions are set out in regulation 49 of the Habitats Regulations. The regulation provides some scope to approve a plan or project even when it cannot be ascertained that there is no adverse effect on European site integrity. For a proposal to proceed there must be no alternative solutions and there must be imperative reasons of overriding public interest (IROPI). It needs to be considered whether a priority habitat or species would be adversely affected, see full list of SAC priority habitats, (there are no priority species in Scotland’s SACs). This decision requires notification to Scottish Ministers.
Potential Pathways of Impact
Here are some examples of common ways in which a proposal can have an effect on the qualifying features in the SAC and SPA European sites associated with the Firth of Forth:
Pressure examples
- Permanent or temporary habitat loss/deterioration.
- Disturbance and/or displacement (e.g. noise and visual)
- Introduction of lighting or shading
- Underwater noise and vibration impacts from piling and construction, and traffic movements (including shipping) during construction.
- Reduced water quality (including increased suspended solids, reduced dissolved oxygen and release of contaminants) from deposition of polluting materials and dredging.
- Changes to coastal processes, e.g. hydrology and sedimentation.
- Introduction or spread of invasive non-native species
- Barrier to species movement and collision risk
In many cases the pressures exerted by activities do not work independently and the way they interact needs to be considered. For example, land-claim and dredging may lead to changes in coastal processes, sediment deposition and water flows. Some may be temporary. Other pathways may be a risk to European features throughout the life of a development from construction onward, such as the risk of introducing damaging invasive non-native species (INNS).
Planning and development guidance on minimising impacts on habitats and species is available on the NatureScot website pages; planning and development advice and marine planning advice. Also see FeAST a web-based application which allows users to investigate the sensitivity of marine features to pressures arising from human activities.
The table below identifies generic actions that have the potential to mitigate or avoid some of the commonly occurring potential activities which could exert pressures on the qualifying features in the SAC and SPA European sites associated with the Firth of Forth. This generic mitigation may not be applicable in all cases but will provide a starting point for consideration.
Impact pathways | Potential Generic Mitigation |
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Damage or detereoration to intertidal habitat through run-off or pollution and reduced water quality. |
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Direct loss of intertidal and subtidal habitats and supporting qualifying features. |
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Abrasion and siltation effects on subtidal habitats. |
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Indirect loss of intertidal habitat within the European site and supporting qualifying features (for example as a consequence of changed coastal processes). |
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Temporary (construction) disturbance. |
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Permanent disturbance e.g. from lighting, noise, human activity, etc. on development sites adjacent to areas of use by qualifying species. |
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Permanent disturbance from recreational activity in the intertidal area, i.e. people walking on the beach. |
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Temporary (construction) disturbance/damage to intertidal habitat. |
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Collision risk / barriers to flight lines (from wind turbines or tall buildings on or very close to the intertidal area) or migratory passage through water for fish and marine mammals. |
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Loss of feeding or roosting sites for birds closely associated with the SPA and on greenfield sites out with the SPA, e.g. agricultural land, parks, sports fields, etc. |
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Ecological Principles
Estuarine habitat and physical processes
Animals require energy to survive and to breed which they obtain from their food. Different species are adapted to feed on different resources and therefore favour different habitats. Even within the same habitat, different species may exploit different food resources. For example, through variation in bill length and shape, birds are adapted to feed on different prey species. Many waders and other long-billed birds such as curlew have touch-sensitive bill tips and typically forage by touch or a combination of sight and touch, whereas the short-billed plovers forage mainly by sight.
Minor changes to processes such as sediment deposition, water flows, availability of food resources and predator/prey relationships constantly occur. Their impact can be extremely complicated, and, in some cases, small incremental changes may lead to a substantial overall effect. Apparently minor changes to the environment therefore need to be assessed carefully when considering factors that could cause declines in bird numbers.
There are a number of characteristics of estuarine habitat. For birds the following are especially important either for their own survival or that of their preferred food source:
- Water depth and the extent of the intertidal area
- Sediment particle size and the substrate character of the intertidal area
- Nutrient levels
- Salinity
- Disturbance – area around them clearly visible and the ability to detect trouble coming
- Light
Sediment Transport
Sediment transport is natural process where estuarine habitat is strongly influenced by sediment transport processes, a supporting benefit of their ecosystem services. Sediment particle size varies throughout an estuary, determined by topography, currents, tides and weather and creates different substrates from coarse sand to fine muds. Whether a substrate is rocky, shingle, sand or mud is a key determinant of which animals and food-plants are abundant in which parts of an estuary, and hence the food available to the various species of estuarine bird. This variability of habitat in the Firth is key and also influences the abundance of prey items in the water column for seabirds and marine mammals.
Tidal Cycle
In the estuarine environment, the tidal cycle influences habitat availability and has a strong effect on the behaviour on all species present. This is compounded by limited daylight hours in winter. Estuarine birds may need to feed at night. Tactile feeders are adapted better for this than visual feeders (e.g. plovers) though the latter often have large eyes which enable them to feed at night, at least on moonlit nights. Movement of fish species and their associated marine mammal predators can be influenced by the tidal cycle allowing free migration upriver.
Habitats are important for purposes other than foraging. At high tide or when intertidal habitats and their associated food resources are unavailable waders and wildfowl often move to a safe place where they roost and wait for the tide to turn. Some may seek alternative feeding sites such as coastal fields or lagoons adjacent to the estuary. Birds, especially when migrating or over-wintering, must conserve energy and minimise unnecessary and wasteful energy expenditure. Consequently, roosting sites need to be undisturbed, by predators and human activity. Birds may use natural habitats, for example a saltmarsh or an island or mudflat, or man-made sites such as concrete islands and jetties.
Species migration
Many species use different habitats in different seasons or different stages of their life. This is particularly pronounced in fish species such as lamprey and salmon where different stages of the life cycle move between the sea and freshwater. It is also true of many bird species that migrate between breeding sites and non-breeding areas. For some species, including oystercatcher, curlew, and redshank a proportion of birds remain within Britain but many of them move inland to breed and only small numbers breed within the Firth of Forth and its immediate vicinity.
Human pressures effecting changes to the environment
Pressures resulting from land-claim and physical change to the intertidal
Land-claim (also referred to as “reclamation’) involves converting marine or intertidal habitat to dry land, often by constructing a barrier such as a seawall to prevent the tide from reaching that area. Parts of the Forth estuary have been claimed and converted for use as industrial sites (e.g. the Grangemouth industrial complex, Rosyth port complex). Other areas have been used for dumping mining waste, ash from coal-fired power stations and general waste (e.g. at Bo’ness, Longannet and Kinneil) with most such habitat losses occurring in the 20th century. In addition, there has been longer term and progressive loss for agriculture. As much as 50% of the historic intertidal of the Firth of Forth has been lost for a variety of reasons including agriculture, harbours and industrial development. The most obvious impact of land-claim on birds is the loss of natural marine and intertidal habitats. However, change is not always entirely negative. In time, some of the areas claimed from the estuary develop into different habitats, some of which become valued as wildlife habitats and local nature reserves (e.g. the old bing at Bo’ness and Kinneil lagoon. Musselburgh lagoons are another example and are an important area of the Firth of Forth SPA for birds). Even where development has minimal or no physical impact on intertidal habitat, birds may still be affected. Some developments adjacent to the estuary may not directly affect estuarine habitats but result in loss of inland habitat used by estuarine birds that can be particularly important at certain times (e.g. feeding areas for pink-footed geese, wigeon, lapwing, golden plover, curlew and roost sites for a variety of species).
Birds that previously used claimed areas must find new habitat. Their ability to do so will depend on whether these sites have any capacity to support extra birds. A study of birds displaced by the construction of Cardiff Bay barrage highlighted that displaced birds will not necessarily be able to find suitable alternative long-term habitat elsewhere. The study also demonstrated that the displaced birds were significantly lighter than those which had previously been using the site and suffered significantly higher winter mortality.
Land-claim may also have indirect effects. Altered topography may cause changes to currents and tidal flows, affecting sediment deposition and erosion and potentially affecting the extent and type of intertidal habitat available to birds. Such effects may extend well beyond the immediate vicinity of the development. For example, the creation of jetties may cause additional accretion to occur one side of the jetty and reduced accretion or scour on the other. Land-claim also has the potential to create narrower estuaries and ‘coastal squeeze’, making habitats more vulnerable to future sea-level rise.
Land-claim and development projects may often be small but the cumulative effect of many small-scale developments causing minor loss of habitat may be significant.
Dredging and disposal pressures
The act of dredging has consequences beyond the area dredged and the immediately adjacent seabed. It alters the sediment equilibrium leading to redistribution over a much wider area. Many living organisms are removed and habitats for others are destroyed or redistributed.
Maintenance dredging is an ongoing process and there may be insufficient time for ‘recovery’. Therefore, changes in sediment structure and invertebrate communities may be more permanent and the bird assemblages associated with such continuously dredged areas could potentially achieve a new stable equilibrium. Capital dredging is likely to have a greater impact on established use of an area by birds.
Dredging may also increase the levels of metals and organic pollutants in the estuary, by releasing contaminants that have been trapped within the sediments. In some cases, it has also been suggested that nutrients have also been released during dredging operations.
Dredging can also change the level of mudflats and sandflats so that less area is exposed at certain states of the tide, reducing areas available for foraging birds.
The impact of dredging can differ markedly between sites and therefore potential changes to the water and sediment flows of an estuary should be carefully assessed and tested through models specific to that site. Modelling is most often carried out at the project stage. Strategic planning should therefore consider whether dredging associated with proposals is possible in principle and should ensure adequate policy safeguards are in place in addition to ensure no adverse effect on site integrity.
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Disturbance and displacement pressures and ecological consequences
Types of disturbance and displacement
Disturbance is defined as the result of direct or indirect interaction with people that changes the behaviour of any animal or changes the environment, which in turn affects the well-being or survival of an animal in the short, medium, or long-term. Disturbance can occur naturally, for example when predators approach potential prey. However, this section focuses on anthropogenic disturbance pressures. The effects of disturbance depend on magnitude, frequency, predictability, extent, and duration. Nature can also experience ‘displacement’ effects without ‘disturbance’. For example, due to the sustained presence of new objects and/or infrastructure, which denies or limits the use of an area by particular species.
Whilst it is clear and obvious that species may be disturbed to some extent by human activity, it is more difficult to assess the actual impact that disturbance, and displacement, may have on individuals or at a site or population level. Feeding and resting activity of birds and mammals may be disturbed by both the presence of people and noise associated with particular activities. In the environment of an open estuary, views are very long, and sound carries well, especially over water. Thus, disturbance on estuaries can have exceptionally long reach.
Activities causing disturbance and displacement pressures include:
- Construction work
Construction work on or adjacent to an estuary may cause noise and visual disturbance. Major construction work can reduce densities, or exclude birds from some intertidal areas, during the construction phase (and sometimes after construction)
- Noise
Birds often respond to loud noise by flying away but few studies have looked at the effect of noise on foraging and roosting birds. Most studies have found that irregular and/or louder noises cause more disturbance than quiet and/or regular noises. Noise impacts through the water can be particularly disturbing to some marine mammals and fish and can even cause physical damage. Sound propagation in marine environments is affected by four main factors: the frequency of the sound, water depth, and density differences within the water column, which vary with temperature and pressure.
- Artificial lighting
Artificial lighting has been found to affect the movements of migratory birds by attracting them, sometimes causing mortality. Artificial lighting can make it easier for visual feeders to find and capture prey but also make birds more vulnerable to predators.
- Aircraft
Aircraft may have particularly strong effects on waterfowl, but as with other influences this depends on volume, height, frequency of flights and other factors
- Walking and dog-walking
Walking (including birdwatching) and dog-walking are among the most common and widespread activities carried out on British estuaries. Individual instances of disturbance from these activities may be relatively minor, but cumulatively the effects may be considerable. For example, a stretch of shore used by many people for recreation may become unusable for birds.
- Water-based recreation
Water-based recreational activities include sailing, water-skiing, jet-skis, motorboats, kayaking, windsurfing, and paddleboarding. Water-based activities may affect species that normally forage at sea and are less used to disturbance than birds using other habitats.
Disturbance whilst foraging
The actual impact of disturbance to feeding animals depends on the effects of disturbance on energy intake and expenditure. This will be determined by:
- how much foraging time is lost
- how much extra energy expenditure occurs because of disturbance, and
- whether individuals can compensate
Animals may be able to compensate by a variety of means:
- using alternative habitat, if available
- increasing food intake rates when they resume feeding and/or
- extending the length of time that they feed
Minor levels of disturbance may therefore have little long-term effect. However, the ability to compensate may be limited. Wading birds can feed on mudflats only during low tide when they are uncovered, and areas will be variable in their foraging quality. This limiting factor becomes more important in cold weather when birds need to feed for longer to meet their energy requirements. Some species need to feed for longer than others and so are more susceptible to the effects of disturbance during cold weather. Sustained or repeated disturbance may result in an area becoming unusable and effectively the long-term loss of an area of feeding habitat. Such disturbance may therefore cause a reduction in the number of birds that a site can support, known as the 'carrying capacity' of a site.
Disturbance at roosting and resting sites
Birds
Disturbing activities can occur at or close to the high-tide mark, where roosting birds are often more vulnerable to disturbance pressures, as they gather in large flocks. Foraging birds are generally spread out over a wide area of mudflat, and often further away from most human activities. Many subtidal species, such as the seaducks, roost during the night, irrespective of tidal cycles. Some seaducks may also have ‘retreat zones’ which they may use if they are disturbed. Therefore, considering which species are susceptible to disturbance, for any given proposal, will be important, and may have a bearing on potential impacts.
Seals
Seals (grey and harbour) are vulnerable to disturbance and displacement at their haul out sites. People getting too close, especially with dogs are a particular problem. Seals are especially vulnerable to disturbance during the breeding season and, during their moult.
Mothers recognise their pups from their calls and smell. The bond formation between mother and pup can be interrupted by excessive or persistent disturbance, particularly during the first few days after birth. If a mother fails to recognise her pup and abandons it, the pup is likely to starve and die. Females pupping for their first time are often more susceptible to disturbance. During their moult, seals prefer to spend longer out of the water than at other times of the year. This is because they are growing new hair. At this time their peripheral blood supply is open, providing the cells that make the new hair with the necessary nutrients. If they are forced to enter the water the blood system closes down, and they have to restart this system when they next haul out. This is a drain on their energy reserves.
Bottlenose Dolphin
It is difficult to determine specific resting or breeding sites for dolphin, but we do know that certain areas are particularly important for them. Dolphins are present in the Firth of Forth all year round, and, while they range widely, they appear to favour particular areas. They may range further afield and occur regularly in the Firths of Tay, Forth and St Andrews Bay.
Sensitivity and habituation
The impact of disturbance may be lower if it occurs regularly and is predictable (e.g. walkers staying on footpaths), especially if the intensity of the disturbing activity is not severe. In such cases, birds may show habituation to disturbance and allow a closer approach than birds which are not habituated. This does not mean that it is safe to assume that birds will habituate to any disturbance.
Measures to prevent disturbance in late winter may be particularly important as this will be when many species are likely to be most at risk and less able to compensate for the effects of disturbance; declining temperatures and food quality combine to make survival more difficult in late winter. This is especially true during periods of severe weather, when birds may be at risk of starvation even without the added impact of disturbance. A formal statutory process and set of criteria already exists in the UK to suspend shooting of wildfowl on the foreshore in severe weather.
Species Accounts for Qualifying Features
This section contains brief species descriptions for all the qualifying features of European sites which are likely to require consideration for projects occurring on the Firth of Forth. Not all developments will have the potential to affect all features. Information on all European sites and their qualifying features is available on Naturescot Sitelink page. This includes interactive maps of the sites.
Birds - an explanation of the account sections
The bird species accounts apply to the European sites to which they relate, and identify their populations at classification, origin, behaviour, habitat, diet, seasonality, pressures, and population trends. Reference sources are included from which the information required to complete the various aspects of each species’ account was obtained.
Condition Status
SPA & SAC features may, or may not, be in ‘favourable condition’. Please check Sitelink to see the most up to date ‘condition status’ for each European feature. The condition of a feature can be important to take into consideration when undertaking an HRA. For example, if a feature is ‘unfavourable-declining/no change’ it means that the potential for that feature to accept further and/or ongoing pressures is going to be low, thus it’s resilience to deal with ongoing impacts could potentially affect its recovery. Therefore, ‘condition status’ has relevance for including within HRAs.
Origin
This section describes whether the species is a resident within the Firth of Forth area covered by this review, or migratory. For non-resident species, it describes briefly where they spend the rest of the year.
Behaviour
Key information on each species’ feeding, roosting, and breeding behaviour when they are present within the Firth of Forth area.
Diet
Key information on the diet of each species when they are present within the Firth of Forth area.
Habitat
This section summarises information on the principal habitats that species use within the Firth of Forth area. Habitat use is described for both high and low tides as some species’ presence in a particular habitat can be dependent on the state of the tide.
Distribution
This section summarises the occurrence and abundance of the species within: (a) the ‘Inner Forth’, defined as the largely estuarine area upriver from the Queensferry Bridges; and (b) the ‘Outer Forth’ that includes the Firth of Forth below the Queensferry Bridges, the Forth Islands and outer Tay areas. Within each area, the distribution and abundance of species are described using the terms:
- Widespread – species found in most areas of suitable habitat within the site.
- Local – species found in a few (often specific) areas of the site.
- Absent, rare, scarce, uncommon, common, numerous – six subjective categories are used to indicate relative in increasing order of magnitude. These categories are based on data from the Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS), the Seabird Monitoring Programme, local bird reports and BTO expertise. Numerical data for each species are presented in the population trends section.
Seasonality
Periods of presence and relative abundance are presented graphically using data from the WeBS where applicable or are otherwise summarised by brief text. Where presented, the figures show mean monthly counts for five recent years.
Pressures
This section provides a short summary of some pressures and issues most relevant to each species, both within the SPAs and elsewhere in the Firth of Forth. Some pressures apply to all species (for example pollution or recreational disturbance) and to prevent repetition, these are largely excluded from the species accounts but are noted in the discussion on impacts earlier in this document. A more detailed discussion is available at
SNH Commissioned Report 804: A review of literature on the qualifying interest species of Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in the Firth of Forth and development related influences upon which this guidance is based.
In some instances, there is a lack of published evidence that specific pressures identified for one species may also influence other species, even though this seems likely. An example that is especially relevant to the Firth of Forth is the interaction between scaup, molluscs and water quality - reduced sewage outputs leading to reduced mollusc abundance which supported fewer scaup. Although it is likely that other sea duck will have similar interactions, their accounts may not include this pressure because a link has not been investigated or the details remain unpublished. Therefore, the list of pressures should not be considered comprehensive but rather an indication of current knowledge about them, and new issues may arise in future which plans and projects need to consider.
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza or HPAI is affecting seabirds, for the most recent guidance see our Avian influenza page.
Population Trends
Where data are available, this section details whether the Firth of Forth area population for each species has increased, declined or remained stable, and makes comparisons with the wider Scottish trend. The comparisons are made to illustrate that a decline or increase within the Forth area does not always indicate a change in the conditions of that area. In some cases, a change in the Forth may simply reflect wider scale changes occurring in Scotland and further afield. The accounts use data from the Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS), and the Seabird Monitoring Programme.
Note that population trends are determined from data that are not necessarily restricted to the SPA. This will lead to some apparent discrepancy from baseline population estimates given under the ’Conservation Status’ heading; however, the trends should be representative of patterns of change within the SPAs.
Figures derived from WeBS show relative changes in peak counts over the period covered (generally over three decades) with the baseline year (index = 100) taken as the 2010/11 winter. The figures illustrate both the raw maximum indices (joined by a dotted line) and also the smoothed trend (shown by a solid line) derived from those counts.
Population changes for pink-footed goose are based on winter roost counts. Population changes for breeding seabirds are based on counts of apparently occupied nest sites. Breeding seabird trends are shown for years when most (and a constant sample of) island colonies have been counted. Longer runs of seabird data than presented are available from single colonies, notably for the Isle of May.
Pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives
SPA Population at Classification: 10,852
Origin – Winter visitors to Scotland, breed in Iceland and eastern Greenland. Many birds that winter in England stage in Scotland in the spring and autumn.
Behaviour – Highly gregarious, roosting and feeding in large flocks. Persistent use of favoured feeding sites within and between winters, especially when little disturbed.
Diet – Herbivorous. Outside the breeding season feeds on improved grasslands, cereal stubbles and vegetables (e.g. potatoes, sugar beet, carrots).
Habitat – Feeds on farmland and usually roosts on estuaries at night. Foraging areas are normally within 20 km of roost sites.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Locally numerous
- Outer areas - Locally numerous
![A Pink-Footed Goose in the water.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/pink-footed-goose-anser-brachyrhynchus.jpg?itok=W4Uchxaj)
Seasonality – Mainly a passage migrant with more modest numbers through the winter.
Pressures – Conflict with farmers may grow especially if numbers continue to increase. Changes in agricultural practice could affect food availability. Disturbance to roosts and feeding areas. A major quarry species for hunters.
Population trends – Winter numbers in (and around) the Firth of Forth have increased in line with national trends.
Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 4,509
Origin – Undertakes short migrations to moulting sites in late summer when most adults leave the UK for a month or two. Small number of birds moult in British estuaries, notably including the Forth.
Behaviour – Feeds by digging and dabbling in intertidal areas, feeding during both day and night according to the tide. The late summer moulting flock around Grangemouth is one of the three largest in Britain.
Diet – Various tiny invertebrates, with small molluscs predominant in northern and western Europe, especially Hydrobia snails.
Habitat – Prefers saline habitats including muddy and sandy estuaries.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, numerous
- Outer areas - Locally common
![A Shelduck standing on snow covered rocks beside a body of water.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/shelduck.png?itok=Q-kDPwej)
Seasonality – Mainly an autumn/winter visitor, with peak numbers occuring during the autumn moult in August/September. The breeding population on low ground around the estuary is important in a Scottish context.
Pressures – Disturbance to potentially flightless moulting birds. Across UK estuary sites counts were significantly lower in areas close to footpaths. The abundance of Hydrobia water snails (a major food source for the species) is influenced by water quality and may affect the numbers of shelduck and their duration of stay.
Population trends – Numbers reasonably stable in recent years.
Wigeon (Anas penelope)
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 2,139
Origin – Birds wintering in UK breed mainly in northern Russia, though some Icelandic-bred birds also occur in Scotland.
Behaviour – Gregarious, forming large flocks, often grazing in grassy fields. Can feed at night, especially in marine habitats.
Diet – Plant material from both above and below surface level.
Habitat – Salt marshes, lagoons, estuaries, intertidal mudflats, sheltered marine habitats and nearby grassy fields.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open Water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, common
- Outer areas - Locally common
![7 wigeon searching for food in shallow water.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/wigeon-at-udale-bay-cromarty-firth.jpg?itok=Rwa0DdxM)
Seasonality – Winter visitor, from September to March.
Pressures – Wigeon flocks feed close to the water’s edge. When disturbed, flocks fly to the safety of open water and take a while to come back to feed affecting their ability to forage if ongoing disturbance occurs.
Population trends – The Forth trend is tracking the Scottish trend, and the proportion of Scottish wintering birds using the site is stable. This suggests the site remains relatively favourable to this species.
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 2,564
Origin – Many are local but up to three-quarters of the birds wintering in the UK may be winter visitors from northwest Europe.
Behaviour – Feeds predominantly by dabbling in shallows or upending in slightly deeper water. Birds may occasionally graze ashore. May feed at night. Often tolerant of humans, especially in urban areas.
Diet –Will eat both plant and animal matter.
Habitat – All wetland types, though prefers sites with shallow water and cover. Will feed and roost on the sea and in brackish waters.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, common
- Outer areas - Widespread, common
![](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/male-and-female-mallard-ducks.jpg?itok=jC3xBizs)
Seasonality – Mainly a winter visitor but with substantial numbers resident and breeding.
Pressures – Localised disturbance.
Population trends – The decline in the wintering population in the UK is thought to be caused by a reduction in long-distance movement by European mallards, perhaps because of milder winters in mainland Europe. The Forth trend is tracking the Scottish trend and the proportion of Scottish wintering birds using the site is stable. This suggests conditions on the site remain favourable for this particular species.
Scaup (Aythya marila)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 437
Origin – Birds wintering in Britain & Ireland come from Iceland, the Baltic, Scandinavia and Russia.
Behaviour – Gregarious outside breeding season, feeding by diving in shallow waters.
Diet – Omnivorous, but mostly molluscs in winter, especially mussels Mytilus species. Also cockles Cardium species and clams Macoma species in estuaries and Hydrobia species in brackish waters.
Habitat – Winters in sheltered coastal waters e.g. estuaries.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Scarce
- Outer areas - Scarce
Seasonality – Winter visitor, mainly October to March.
Pressures – Improving water quality may have a negative effect on abundance of some food sources, such as molluscs.
Population trends – Numbers using the site declined sharply, from >60% of Scottish wintering birds in the late 1970s to less than 5% in recent years. Declines linked to reduction in sewage inputs.
Eider (Somateria mollissima)
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 2,400 pairs
Origin – In Scotland mainly a resident species with only a few birds making short-distance movements.
Behaviour – Eider feed either by diving in deeper water or upending in shallow water. Frequent flights are made between roost and feeding sites. Eider form large flocks during July and August when birds moult and are flightless for several weeks. After hatching, young will join together to form large creches which can disperse several km (e.g. from islands to mainland coast).
Diet – Molluscs and crustaceans, blue mussels Mytilus edulis are the main prey species .
Habitat – Eiders are a marine species concentrated in sheltered waters. Eider nest on the ground mainly on mammal-free offshore islands and on quieter areas of mainland coast.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Uncommon
- Outer areas - Common
![Males and female Eider ducks on the water.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/males-and-female-eider-ducks.jpg?itok=SnDd2y0n)
Seasonality – Present year-round in the Firth of Forth with a peak in late summer /early autumn as numbers are supplemented by young birds.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 1,045
Origin – Breeds around Arctic Circle. Those wintering in Britain may originate from Fennoscandinavia and northwest Russia.
Behaviour – Highly gregarious outside the breeding season, roosting and feeding in inshore and offshore waters. Feed during day by diving, regularly to depths of 3–10m, but to maximum depth of 50–60m.
Diet – Predominantly animal matter, including crustaceans, molluscs, other marine invertebrates and fish.
Habitat – At sea, often far offshore, but also in estuarine waters.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Rare
- Outer areas - Locally uncommon
Seasonality – Winter visitor, mainly November to April, peaking in February.
Common scoter (Melanitta nigra)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 2,125 individuals
Origin – Mostly a winter visitor from Iceland and Fennoscandinavia, although small numbers of non-breeding birds are present in the Firth of Forth throughout the year.
Behaviour – Feeds and roosts in flocks sometimes quite far offshore. Frequently fly between favoured feeding areas.
Diet – A range of mollusc species caught by diving and foraging mostly over sandy substrates.
Habitat – Away from their breeding grounds common scoter spend most of their time on the sea. They forage for food by diving in inshore waters that are up to 20 m deep.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Outer areas - Locally uncommon
- Inner Forth - Rare
Large flocks found between Musselburgh and North Berwick on the south side of the Forth, in Largo Bay and St Andrews Bay in Fife.
Seasonality – Numbers are highest in November and during April to June.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca)
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 612
Origin – A winter visitor from Fennoscandinavia and Russia, although small numbers of non-breeding birds are present in the Forth through the year.
Behaviour – Feeds and roosts in flocks, often mixed with common scoter, although velvet scoter often forage closer to shore. Frequently fly between favoured feeding areas.
Diet – A high proportion of velvet scoter diet consists of molluscs, caught by diving underwater and foraging in mostly sandy substrates.
Habitat – Away from their breeding grounds, velvet scoter spend most of their time on the sea. They forage for food by diving in inshore waters that are up to 20 m deep.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Outer areas - Rare
- Inner Forth - Locally common
Large flocks found between Musselburgh and Gullane on the south side of the Forth, and in Largo Bay and St Andrews Bay in Fife.
Seasonality – Numbers increase from late summer with a peak in late winter.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 2,465
Origin – A small number of birds nest in the north of the UK but most wintering birds in Scotland are thought to be from Norway and northern Sweden.
Behaviour – Principally a daytime feeder. Feeds by diving.
Diet – Mostly aquatic insects, molluscs and crustaceans and occasionally fish. Plant material generally less than 25% of diet.
Habitat – Mainly shallow estuaries, bays and harbours; also, larger lakes and rivers and in the vicinity of sewage outfalls.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, uncommon
- Outer areas - Widespread, uncommon
![Goldeneye duck swimming in water.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/goldeneye-muir-of-dinnet.jpg?itok=mp9Z1QOe)
Seasonality – Winter visitor (mainly November to March).
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 670
Origin – Wintering birds include some local breeders and probably some from central Europe, but most are from Iceland and possibly eastern Greenland.
Behaviour – Gregarious during winter. Feeds by diving.
Diet – Mainly fish and crustaceans; also worms, insects and amphibians.
Habitat – Winters mainly at sea on secluded bays or estuaries. Shows a preference for clear, shallow waters not affected by heavy wave action.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, uncommon
- Outer areas - Widespread, uncommon
Seasonality – Mainly a winter visitor, but birds start returning in late summer to moult in the Firth of Forth.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Red-throated diver (Gavia stellata)
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives
SPA Population at Classification: 104 individuals
Origin – Circumpolar species with Scotland at the southern edge of the breeding range. Wintering birds can originate from Scotland, Fennoscandinavia, Iceland and Greenland.
Behaviour – Feeds by diving,usually solitary or in small groups. Occasionally in large flocks further offshore. Often flies between feeding grounds on wintering areas.
Diet – Primarily fish.
Habitat – Principally a marine species in winter, occuring on sheltered inshore waters above soft substrates and sometimes also in large numbers further offshore. Offshore occurrence maybe more frequent than is recorded but difficult to monitor.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Scarce
- Outer areas - Widespread, scarce
The largest numbers are in the outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay.
![Red-throated diver on a lochan.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/red-throated-diver-on-lochan.jpg?itok=nICiojnd)
Seasonality – Numbers peak in autumn with low numbers present all year.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – A North Atlantic species of which 80% nest on islands off the west coast of Britain and Ireland. Manx shearwaters are predominantly spring and autumn migrants off the east coast of Scotland. They winter in the south Atlantic off South America.
Behaviour – Manx shearwaters are a long-distance migrant, able to cover very large distances over the sea. This species feeds on the surface as well as underwater, where it actively pursues prey using its wings.
Diet – Manx shearwater diet consists mainly of fish and squid.
Habitat – Oceanic but mainly over the continental shelf, only coming ashore to breed on predator-free offshore islands.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Rare
- Outer areas - Uncommon
Small or moderate numbers are intermittently recorded offshore from the Outer Forth areas during summer and early autumn. Some are driven into the Inner Forth during particularly strong winds.
![Manx Shearwater on a grassy cliff.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/manx-shearwater.jpg?itok=qO5weWoQ)
Seasonality – A rare breeder on the Isle of May where small numbers of birds return from their wintering grounds in April. Peak numbers in the Forth are movements of birds not breeding in the Forth – particularly between July and September
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Gannet (Morus bassanus)
Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrew’s Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 21,600 pairs
Origin – Breeds throughout the North Atlantic with Scotland holding half the world population in 14 colonies. The Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth is the world’s largest single colony. Winter out at sea as far south as West Africa. As birds grow older they winter closer to the breeding grounds.
Behaviour – Breeding birds fly between their colony and foraging areas up to 500 km away. Large feeding flocks occur in the Forth. Gannets can catch prey at a wide range of depths. Prey is caught by plunge-diving from height or occasionally by diving from the surface.
Diet – A diverse range of fish and squid, including fisheries discards.
Habitat – Gannets are a marine species that rarely come to land except to breed. They breed on sheer cliffs and stacks, but where conditions are right, as on Bass Rock, also on flat surfaces.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Scarce
- Outer areas - Locally numerous
In the Forth only breeds on Bass Rock.
![Gannet flying over the sea.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/gannet.jpg?itok=TeIgpCsn)
Seasonality – Gannets are present all year but more numerous during the breeding season. They return to their nesting sites in January. Most egg laying takes place in April and fledging peaks in early to mid-September.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 200 Pairs
Origin – Resident breeders supplemented by migrants in winter. Most Scottish Cormorants are of the sub-species P.c. carbo.
Behaviour – In the Forth breeds on cliffs and stacks on islands. Feeds by diving underwater from the surface.
Diet – A wide range of small fish (generally smaller than 20 cm in length) such as butterfish, sandeels, flatfish and eels.
Habitat – Feeds in shallow water, generally less than 20 m deep. Foraging range up to 50 km. Roosts on man-made structures (e.g. buoys, jetties, harbour walls) as well as natural rocky headlands, islands, beaches and on estuaries at low tide.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, common
- Outer areas - Widespread, common
![Great Cormorant standing on a rock.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/great-cormorant_0.jpg?itok=cueu8GJF)
Seasonality – Numbers peak in autumn, bolstered by young birds.
Pressures – Cormorant are shot under licence at inland fisheries in Scotland.
Population trends – The winter population in the Firth of Forth is declining but tracking the Scottish trend.
Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis)
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Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 2,400 Pairs
Origin – A resident and dispersive species with interchanges of birds between the Forth and elsewhere in Scotland, England and Norway.
Behaviour – Shags dive from water surface pursuing fish underwater. Can form large flocks, both at roosting and feeding sites.
Diet – Small fish, most commonly sandeels, even in winter months. Young are fed almost exclusively on lesser sandeels Ammodytes tobianus.
Habitat – Almost exclusively marine, breeding on most of the islands in the Forth. Shags are seldom seen far from shore and do not forage far from breeding colonies. Roosts on man-made structures (e.g. buoys, jetties, harbour walls) as well as natural features such as rocky headlands and islands.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Rare
- Outer areas - Widespread, common
![A shag and chick on a rock](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/shag.jpg?itok=lhNTDU4T)
Seasonality – Numbers peak in autumn, bolstered by young birds.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 646
Origin – Most wintering birds probably breed locally but there are few ring recoveries. Little is known about the amount of interchange between Britain and continental Europe.
Behaviour – Largely solitary during winter, though temporary aggregations may form.
Diet – Includes large fish, insects, crustaceans (e.g. crayfish and shrimps) and molluscs.
Habitat – Overwinters on large lakes and reservoirs, and in inshore coastal waters especially when inland waters are frozen.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, uncommon
- Outer areas - Widespread, uncommon
![](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/great-crested-grebe.jpg?itok=_e3bZUIV)
Seasonality – Mainly a winter visitor and passage migrant with peak in September. Many pairs breed on nearby lakes and reservoirs, especially in Fife.
Slavonian grebe (Podiceps auritus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrew’s Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – Birds wintering in the Firth of Forth probably breed in Iceland and Norway.
Behaviour – Slavonian grebe dive underwater from the surface to catch prey.
Diet – Mainly small fish and crustaceans.
Habitat – In winter predominantly a marine species, preferring sheltered sites.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Rare
- Outer areas - Local and uncommon
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 7,846
Origin – Some wintering birds breed in Scotland. Large numbers also come from Iceland, the Faroes and Norway.
Behaviour – Prey is detected by both sight and touch and birds feed by day and night. Many oystercatchers are site faithful, returning to the same shellfish beds, though others roam over a wider area. Less sensitive to disturbance than other waders.
Diet – Predominantly shellfish, especially large cockles Cerastoderma edule and mussels Mytilus edulis. Also include ragworms Nereis species and lugworms Arenicola species on mudflats and earthworms.
Habitat – Mostly on shellfish beds on intertidal mudflats, using nearby mixed wader roost sites when feeding areas are covered by tides. Some also feed on adjacent greenfield areas.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread, numerous
![Oystercatcher sitting on a moss covered rock.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2021-09/Oystercatcher%20%C2%A9Lorne%20Gill%20SNH.jpg?itok=xUq6S64F)
Seasonality – Modest numbers breed along rocky coasts and in fields adjacent to the estuary and coasts. Highest numbers occur during autumn passage through to mid winter, birds begin vacating the site early in the year.
Pressures – Dredging for shellfish, habitat loss (including loss of high tide roost sites).
Population trends – The proportion of Scottish wintering birds using the Forth has remained stable after an increase in the early 1990s. This suggests conditions on the site remain favourable for this particular species.
Golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 2,949
Origin – Wintering birds on the Forth breed in Britain, Fennoscandinavia and Iceland.
Behaviour – Birds forage by day and by night, returning to the same favoured sites each year. Tend to be more tolerant of disturbance than other waders, with flight distances of approximately 50m compared with almost 100m for Redshank and Curlew.
Diet – Mainly insects, especially beetles; also other invertebrates and some plant material.
Habitat – Feeds mainly on pasture and arable farmland in winter with mudflats and saltmarshes mainly used for roosting.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Locally common
- Outer areas - Locally common
![Golden Plover standing on a heather covered rock, surrounded by grasses.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-05/golden-plover.jpg?itok=MZgpRvpO)
Seasonality – Present during autumn passage and early winter (mainly September to December). Some breed in nearby uplands.
Pressures – Long term declines may be associated with changing conditions in breeding areas.
Population trends – The Forth trend is broadly tracking the Scottish trend, although a declining proportion of Scottish wintering birds are being supported by the site. This suggests that conditions on the site are deteriorating for this species.
Grey plover (Pluvialis squatarola)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 724
Origin – All birds come from the population breeding in western Siberia.
Behaviour – Site faithful, defending individual feeding territories within and between winters. Feeds by sight but can forage by night as well as day.
Diet – Predominantly marine (polychaete) worms, molluscs and crustaceans.
Habitat – Estuaries and lagoons, feeding on mudflats and joining mixed wader roosts. Roost sites may include man-made artefacts or occasionally adjacent fields.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
Y |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Scarce
- Outer areas - Widespread, uncommon
Seasonality – Winter visitor, with first passage or returning birds as early as July.
Pressures – There is some evidence that the distribution of this species is shifting north eastwards in response to climate change. Sensitive to disturbance by walkers and dogs.
Population trends – The trend for the Forth is broadly tracking the Scottish trend, although a declining proportion of Scottish wintering birds are being supported by the site. This suggests that conditions for this species are deteriorating on the site.
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 4,148
Origin – The majority of wintering birds come to the UK from central Europe and Russia.
Behaviour – Lapwings feed by sight, but have large eyes and so can feed at night, especially during brighter nights.
Diet – Wide range of invertebrates including beetles and earthworms.
Habitat – Feeds mainly on pasture, wet meadows and arable farmland in winter. Roosts in fields or on saltmarsh. Estuarine sites are especially important in cold weather when inland sites freeze.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Locally common
- Outer areas - Locally common
![Lapwing standing in heather.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2022-06/Lapwing%20SOTE.jpg?itok=-7j3fqii)
Seasonality – Mainly a passage migrant with some birds wintering. Breeds inland around the estuary and suitable areas of the SPA such as Aberlady Bay. The first continental birds return in July.
Pressures – Steep declines in western Europe have been linked to agricultural intensification. Climate change may further reduce the value of Scottish sites as a winter destination.
Population trends – The trend for the Forth tracks the Scottish trend, although with an increasing proportion of Scottish wintering birds being supported by the site. This suggests that, despite the ongoing decline in numbers, conditions on the site remain relatively favourable for this species.
Ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 328
Origin – Movements are poorly understood. Wintering birds may be local or from further north in Scotland, or elsewhere around the North Sea. Birds from Fennoscandinavia, Iceland and Greenland probably occur mainly on passage.
Behaviour – Can occur in large flocks in winter. Feeds by sight.
Diet – Mainly marine worms, crustaceans and molluscs.
Habitat – Predominantly sand and shingle shores, sandbanks and mudflats, roosting close to the feeding sites on bare ground and in low vegetation. May also join mixed wader roosts including those on man-made artefacts.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread in small numbers
- Outer areas - Widespread in small numbers
![Ringed Plover in some grassland, surrounded by daisies.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-05/ringed-plover.jpg?itok=koQA00uI)
Seasonality – Mainly a passage migrant and winter visitor with peak in autumn (August-September). Small numbers breed on shore and nearby ‘broken’ ground (including man-made surfaces and unvegetated patches in fields).
Pressures – Disturbance to breeding birds is a major threat to this species.
Population trends – Numbers have declined recently. Despite the decrease in numbers on the site an increasing proportion of Scottish wintering birds are supported by the Firth of Forth, suggesting site conditions remain relatively favourable for this species.
Curlew (Numenius arquata)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 1,928
Origin –The vast majority of curlew in eastern Scotland in winter are from Fennoscandinava.
Behaviour – Gregarious during winter, occurring in flocks. Birds tend to be site faithful within and between winters. Curlew feed primarily by touch. Sensitive to disturbance.
Diet – Invertebrates, including intertidal worms, crustaceans, molluscs and earthworms.
Habitat – muddy shorelines of estuaries, lagoons, lakes and rivers, with some birds also using inland fields. Roosts at high tide, usually among mixed wader flocks. Roost sites can include man-made artefacts as well as more natural habitats.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread, numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread, numerous
![Curlew feeding on shoreline in a patch of seaweed.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/curlew.jpg?itok=hVMfAV4P)
Seasonality – Peaks occur in autumn and in late winter. A small (and declining) population breeds in fields adjacent to the estuary and coasts.
Pressures Agricultural intensification, afforestation and predation threatens breeding birds. Disturbance at feeding and especially roost sites by walkers and dogs.
Population trends – Winter numbers are variable but increased to a maximum count of 2,582 in 2008/09 and have decreased slightly since to 1,777 in 2012/13. The Forth trend is similar to the Scottish trend. This suggests that conditions on the site remain relatively favourable for this species.
Bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 1,974
Origin – Wintering birds breed in northern Europe and western Siberia (lapponica race).
Behaviour – Highly gregarious in winter, forming large flocks. Many birds are site faithful but small numbers do move sites within or between winters. Relatively sensitive to disturbance compared to other waders.
Diet – Mainly marine worms from mudflats.
Habitat – Mudflats in estuaries, preferring the outer parts of estuaries where substrates are generally most sandy. Joins mixed wader roosts at high tide.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Local, common
- Outer areas - Local, numerous
Seasonality – Mainly winter visitor but some spring passage migrants are present in May and return passage may begin in July.
Pressures – Disturbance of feeding flocks and especially roosts by walkers and dogs.
Population trends – The trend for the Forth is broadly tracking the Scottish trend, although an increasing proportion of the Scottish wintering birds are supported by the site. This suggests that despite the ongoing decline in numbers, conditions on the site remain relatively favourable for this species.
Turnstone (Arenaria interpres)
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Origin – Wintering turnstone breed in Canada and Greenland. Baltic birds occur in the Forth on migration.
Behaviour – Locates food by sight, often by turning over pebbles or seaweed. Highly site faithful, both within and between winters, often remaining in flocks with the same membership. Not particularly sensitive to disturbance compared to other wader species.
Diet – A very wide range of invertebrates and other material, including carrion.
Habitat – Often along rocky or stony shores, but also on mudflats or sandy shores and especially on tide wrack. May join mixed wader roosts, including on man-made artefacts.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Local, scarce
- Outer areas - Locally common
![Turnstones in summer plumage, sitting on rocks.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/turnstones.jpg?itok=oXjtEavz)
Seasonality – Wintering numbers are just exceeded by a passage peak in October. A few non-breeders spend the summer.
Pressures – Climate change may be the cause of a northerly shift in wintering range of turnstone.
Population trends – The proportion of Scottish wintering birds using the Forth has remained stable after increasing in the early 1990s. This suggests the Forth area remains relatively favourable for this species.
Knot (Calidris canutus)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 9,258
Origin – Most birds wintering in Britain are from Greenland and Arctic Canada.
Behaviour – Knot feed in very large dense flocks on open mudflats, catching food mainly by touch. Flocks will move with the tide and may cover very extensive areas of mudflat. Sometimes fly many kilometres to roost sites Sensitive to disturbance, especially at roost sites.
Diet – Mainly molluscs, including tellins Macoma balthica, mussels Mytilus edulis, cockles Cerastoderma edulis and mudsnails Hydrobia ulvae, the latter especially in early winter.
Habitat – Extensive intertidal mudflats. Knot roost sites may include man-made artefacts and occasionally fields adjacent to the shore.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
Y |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread and numerous
- Outer areas - Locally numerous
Seasonality – Winter visitor. Mainly October to March, peak in January/February.
Pressures – Climate change may be the cause of an easterly shift in the wintering distribution of this species.
Population trends – The trend for the Forth broadly tracks the Scottish trend, although a declining proportion of Scottish wintering birds are being supported by the site. This suggests that conditions on the site are deteriorating for this species.
Dunlin (Calidris alpina)
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Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 9,514
Origin – The majority of wintering birds are from northern Fennoscandinavia and European Russia. Dunlin from Iceland and southeastern Greenland are common on passage.
Behaviour – Feeds by touch and sight by day and night according to tides, remaining in large flocks during winter. Site faithful to winter roost sites both within and between winters.
Diet – Invertebrates, mainly marine worms and small gastropods during winter.
Habitat – Estuarine and non-estuarine intertidal mudflats. Joins wader roosts near feeding areas; will roost on open fields during highest tides.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
Y |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread and numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread and numerous
![A Dunlin walking across the sand.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/dunlin.jpg?itok=cbLYJFn_)
Seasonality – Winter visitor (September to March).
Pressures – There is evidence of an easterly shift in the wintering distribution of this species in Europe which may be a result of climate change.
Population trends – The trend for the Forth is broadly tracking the Scottish trend, although with an increasing proportion of Scottish wintering birds being supported by the site. This suggests that despite the recent decline in numbers, conditions on the site remain relatively favourable for this species.
Redshank (Tringa totanus)
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SPA Population at Classification: 4,341
Origin – Most wintering birds are Icelandic breeders with some Scottish birds present.
Behaviour – Redshank are usually site faithful in winter, though long-distance movement sometimes occurs, probably in response to cold weather.
Diet – Invertebrates, including insects, spiders, annelid worms, molluscs and crustaceans (especially amphipods).
Habitat – Mainly coastal, including mudflats and tidal estuaries joining mixed wader roosts at high tide. Roost sites may be on man-made artefacts as well as natural sites.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
- |
- |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread and numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread and numerous
![A Redshank standing on a fence post.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-04/redshank.jpg?itok=3n3tMcER)
Seasonality – Peak numbers occur in autumn, dropping slightly by mid winter. Small numbers breed nearby.
Pressures – Widespread declines in Britain and Europe have been attributed to agricultural intensification on the breeding grounds. Redshank are particularly susceptible to disturbance in severe weather. As they take small prey, they need to feed for longer periods during the tidal cycle than other species and have less scope for extending feeding time when necessary to meet their energy requirements.
Population trends – The trend for the Forth broadly tracks the Scottish trend, although a declining proportion of Scottish wintering birds are being supported by the site. This suggests conditions for this species on the site are deteriorating relative to other sites.
Puffin (Fratercula arctica)
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Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives
SPA Population at Classification: 14,000
Origin – Puffin breed on several of the islands in the Firth of Forth. Outside of the breeding season, movements at sea are poorly understood.
Behaviour – Breed in colonies mainly on offshore islands with no mammalian predators. Feed at sea, diving from surface.
Diet – Small fish, with sandeels being the main prey species fed to young during the breeding season.
Habitat – Breed in burrows on offshore islands. Birds on the Isle of May are known to forage up to 64km from the island (most less than 40 km).
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Rare
- Outer areas - Locally numerous
Breeds on islands in Forth Islands SPA.
![Puffins on the Isle of May NNR, sitting on rocks.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-02/iom-d0099_jpg_jpeg-image-original-size_m27700.jpg?itok=9_8ZWCQP)
Seasonality – Return to their colonies in late March-early April. Most young fledge in July. This species is pelagic in winter and very rarely observed from land.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Razorbill (Alca torda)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – Razorbills breed on several of the islands in the Firth of Forth. Local breeders winter in shallow coastal waters, most in the North Sea with some moving south to the Bay of Biscay. Winter birds may include birds from Iceland, the Faroes and Scandinavia.
Behaviour – Breed in colonies of varying sizes mainly on cliffs and offshore islands. Feed at sea, diving from surface.
Diet – Predominantly small fish (sprats Sprattus sprattus, herring Clupea harengus and sandeels), with prey size being intermediate between those caught by puffin and guillemot.
Habitat – In the Forth, Razorbill breed on cliffs and boulder-scree slopes on offshore islands.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Scarce
- Outer areas - Locally numerous
Breeds on a number of offshore islands in the outer Forth.
![A razorbill - with a white breast and black head and back.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/razorbill.jpg?itok=HaEujt-7)
Seasonality – Birds are in the Forth all year round (lowest numbers in winter), with most returning to their colonies in late March. Chicks leave their nests during the first week of July when still flightless and are fed by the males for several weeks.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Guillemot (Uria aalge)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 16,000 pairs
Origin – Guillemot nest on several of the islands in the Firth of Forth. Large numbers of these birds winter off the east coast of Scotland with some moving as far west as Scandinavia, and as far south as the Bay of Biscay. Winter birds may include some from the Faroes and Norway and other British colonies.
Behaviour – Guillemot spend most of their time on the sea, catching their food by diving under the water from the surface. Guillemot, unlike puffins and razorbills only carry one item of prey at a time back to their nest.
Diet – Predominantly small fish such as sandeels, herring and sprats.
Habitat – Outside the breeding season Guillemot are a pelagic species, though a few make short visits to the nesting cliffs in clement weather. In the Forth, Guillemot breed at high densities on sheer cliffs on offshore islands.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open Water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
- |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
- |
- |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Uncommon
- Outer areas - Locally numerous
Breeds on a number of offshore islands in the outer Forth.
Seasonality – Breeding adults return to their colonies by late March. Chicks leave their nests during late June and early July when still flightless and are fed by the males for up to eight weeks.
Pressures – Sensitive to the availability of suitable size (age-class) fish.
Population trends – Numbers increased in the Firth of Forth through the 1980s and 1990s, but have declined since 2003, particularly on the Isle of May, the largest colony in the Forth.
Sandwich tern (Sterna sandvicensis)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives
SPA Population at Classification: 440 Pairs
Origin – The site is designated as an SPA for the large numbers that congregate in the Forth post-breeding. Ringed birds have originated from breeding sites in Scotland, England, Belgium and The Netherlands. Sandwich terns winter off west Africa, travelling as far as South Africa and the Indian Ocean.
Behaviour – Nests in colonies usually in association with other terns and gulls. Roosts in flocks often with other terns. Dives into the water to catch prey.
Diet – Small fish caught in surface waters.
Habitat – Principally a marine species, but roosts on offshore islands, exposed rocks, estuaries at low tide, and on coastal lagoons. Has nested on offshore islands, undisturbed beaches and sand dunes in the Forth.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open Water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Uncommon
- Outer areas - Common and widespread
Large roosts found between Musselburgh and Aberlady Bay, and also in Tyninghame Bay. Occasionally found in the upper reaches of the estuary when terns follow large shoals of small fish moving upstream.
![Sandwich tern nesting on the beach.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/sandwich-tern.jpg?itok=Vp5Qnp_g)
Seasonality – Large numbers build up in the Forth in July and August (over 2000 in August 2014) with most birds leaving by the end of September.
Pressures – Potentially displaced from colonies by disturbance, predation and increasing gull colonies. Sensitive to the availability of suitable size (age-class) fish.
Population trends – The number of colonies in Scotland has declined dramatically from up to 25 in the past to 7 in 2000, with the subsequent loss of all colonies in the Forth reflecting this.
Common tern (Sterna hirundo)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrew’s Bay Complex SPA.
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 558 Pairs
Origin – Breeding birds from the UK winter off west Africa. Birds breeding in Iceland, Scandinavia and western Siberia occur on passage.
Behaviour – Nests in colonies. Roosts communally often with other tern species. Feeds by diving into surface waters from an aerial dive.
Diet – Small fish, principally sandeels.
Habitat – Mostly a marine species in Scotland. Nesting on flat ground on offshore islands and formerly on beaches along the Forth coast. Forages over both inshore and offshore waters. Roosts on islands, exposed rocks, estuary shores at low tide.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open Water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
![Common Tern standing on a rock on the seashore.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/common-tern-on-seashore.jpg?itok=12fVhdFo)
Seasonality – The first common tern arrive in the Forth in mid April with the majority back by early May. Most have left by the first week in September.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Roseate tern (Sterna dougallii)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 8 Pairs
Origin – Now an irregular breeder, birds visiting the Firth of Forth area are likely to be from colonies in Northumberland. Roseate terns winter off west Africa.
Behaviour – Nests in colonies usually with other terns but often amongst rocks and under artificial cover. Roosts in flocks often with other tern species
Diet – Small fish, principally sandeels in surface waters, which are caught from an aerial dive.
Habitat – Away from their breeding grounds roseate terns are a highly marine species and feed further offshore than most other tern species. Roosts on islands, exposed rocks, estuary shores at low tide.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Rare
- Outer areas - Rare
Formerly a regular breeder, they are still seen annually, including amongst colonies of other terns.
Seasonality – Roseate tern arrive in Scottish waters between late April and early June. Post-breeding, occasional birds wander into the Forth in August and early September.
Pressures – Displaced from former colonies by human disturbance, predation and increasing gull colonies. Sensitive to the availability of suitable size (age-class) fish.
Population trends – The UK and Irish population underwent a large decline in the 20th century, with only a few of the large colonies extant. Numbers at these colonies have been increasing since 2000. With an extant colony in Northumberland, and birds recorded annually in the Forth, re establishment of breeding remains possible.
Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 540 Pairs
Origin – A highly migratory species spending northern winters in the southern oceans, with some reaching Antarctic pack ice. Birds breeding elsewhere in northern Britain, Iceland, Scandinavia and western Siberia are likely to pass through.
Behaviour – Nests in colonies. Roosts in flocks often with other tern species.
Diet – Small fish, principally sandeels in surface waters which are caught from an aerial dive.
Habitat – Nests on flat ground. Roosts on offshore islands, exposed rocks, estuaries at low tide, coastal lagoons. Away from their breeding grounds Arctic tern are a highly marine species. Feeds in inshore and offshore waters.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Uncommon
- Outer areas - Widespread, common, locally numerous
Nested historically on several of the islands in the Firth of Forth, although only on the Isle of May since 1998.
![An arctic tern sitting on a fence post.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/arctic-tern.jpg?itok=Erp2lR82)
Seasonality – The first arctic tern arrive back in the Forth in mid April with the majority back by mid May. Most have left by early September.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 8,400 Pairs
Origin – A marine species breeding in the North Atlantic and North Pacific. Scottish birds winter at sea and may travel as far as North Africa and the east coast of North America. Birds from Norway winter in the North Sea.
Behaviour – Breeds in colonies. Food is caught through shallow plunge-dives or picked from the surface of the sea.
Diet – Sandeels are main prey species for both adults and young in the Forth. In winter, their diet consists mainly of marine invertebrates and small fish.
Habitat – Breeds on cliffs or buildings. Most colonies are on the Forth islands with a few on mainland. Feeds in the open sea. The Banks (area of shallow sea 40 km east) is an especially important feeding ground.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Locally numerous post breeding
- Outer areas - Widespread and locally numerous
![A kittiwake sitting on a rock](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/kittiwake.jpg?itok=TKm_F2sz)
Seasonality – Kittiwake return to their colonies in late February or March. The timing of egg-laying depends on weather and feeding conditions. Nesting colonies are deserted by late August but large feeding concentrations and passage along the east coast occur late into autumn. Some kittiwake winter in the North Sea, but only come close to the coast in inclement weather.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink
Black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – Some winter birds may breed locally;many others breed in northern Europe especially Fennoscandinavia and the Baltic States.
Behaviour – Gregarious throughout the year. Roosts at night in large flocks in winter on the sea, estuary or inland reservoirs, often feeding inland. Often tolerant of humans.
Diet – Mainly aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates. Also artificial food sources provided by humans such as discards or landfill.
Habitat – Most common in winter in coastal habitats though generally avoids rocky coastlines and occurs inland in many different natural and urban habitats.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread and numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread and numerous
Small numbers breed close to the SPAs.
![Black Headed Gull nesting in some grassland.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/black-headed-gull.jpg?itok=J3iMiAR0)
Seasonality – Mostly a winter visitor. Failed breeders or post-breeding birds start returning from late June. Peak in September.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Little gull (Hydrocoloeus minutus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – A spring and autumn passage bird in eastern Scotland. The main breeding range is in northwest Russia, the Baltic and in Siberia. Several hundred remain in the North Sea for the winter when strong easterly winds can push birds close to shore.
Behaviour – Feeds by picking food items off the surface of water, sometimes in large flocks.
Diet – When in Scottish waters mostly small fish and invertebrates.
Habitat – Roosts on sheltered water, estuaries and beaches, feeding offshore during the day.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
- |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
- |
- |
Inland fields |
- |
- |
Offshore islands |
- |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Rare
- Outer areas - Scarce
Largest numbers in eastern Scotland are found in the Tay Bay, but flocks of several hundred have been recorded in the Forth.
Seasonality – Two peaks of birds occur in autumn with young birds and adults migrating at different times.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Common gull (Larus canus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – Some winter birds breed in Scotland;many others breed in northern Europe especially Fennoscandinavia.
Behaviour – Gregarious in winter and joins mixed gull roosts at night.
Diet – Mainly earthworms, insects, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates and small fish.
Habitat – Uses both inland and coastal habitats, including farmland and urban habitats. Large night-time roosts form along the coast.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread and numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread and numerous
![Common gull stanidng on some dry grassland.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/common-gull.jpg?itok=sH9rVmFb)
Seasonality – Winter visitor mainly present September to March. Small numbers breed close to the Forth (including urban nesting).
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 6,600 pairs
Origin – A common and widespread local breeder. Scottish birds can travel in winter to Spain and north Africa although increasing numbers winter in the UK.
Behaviour – Adaptable species, exploiting a range of habitats and food resources. At sea it is a surface feeder, foraging behind fishing boats or catching fish and invertebrates.
Diet – An omnivore that eats a wide range of fish, invertebrates, carrion, live prey and human waste.
Habitat – Tends to forage further out to sea than other large gulls. Also forages in agricultural and urban areas, using rubbish dumps and sewage plants. Away from breeding sites this species forms large roosts with other gulls on sheltered open water, inland or in bays in the Forth.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open Water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread and numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread and numerous
Breeds in large colonies on Forth islands and also in urban areas (rooftops).
![Lesser black-backed gull sitting on a rock surrounded by grasses and flowers.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/lesser-black-backed-gull.jpg?itok=U8aCoPJD)
Seasonality – Migrants return to the Forth in February and March with birds passing through on their way north at this time as well.
Pressures – Abundance and distribution influenced by availability of human food and fishery discards as well as natural food sources. Urban nesting can cause conflict with humans in some areas.
Population trends – Increased through much of 20th century. Regular counts on the Isle of May suggest a recent increase in population which is counter to the national 48% decline for breeding birds between 2002 and 2012. Increased incidence of urban nesting also contrasts with a wider decline.
Herring gull (Larus argentatus)
For the most up to date information on site conservation status and population trends go to Sitelink:
Outer Firth of Forth and Tay Bay Complex SPA
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic conservation objectives.
SPA Population at Classification: 6,600 Pairs
Origin – Local breeders can remain through the year but some move south in winter including to mainland Europe. Winter population also includes by birds from northern Scotland, Iceland and Scandanavia.
Behaviour – Adaptable species, exploiting a range of habitats and food resources.
Diet – An omnivore that eats a wide range of fish, invertebrates, carrion, live prey and human waste.
Habitat – Breeds on offshore islands, coastal cliffs and buildings. Forages in the intertidal zone, agricultural and urban areas, ubbish dumps and sewage plants.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
Y |
Saltmarsh |
Y |
Y |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Coastal fields |
Y |
Y |
Inland fields |
Y |
Y |
Offshore islands |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread and numerous
- Outer areas - Widespread and numerous
Breeds in large colonies on Forth islands and also in urban areas (rooftops).
![A herring gull standing on a rock.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-06/herring-gull.jpg?itok=S5XsIfj-)
Seasonality – Large numbers of birds are present in the Forth year-round. Adult males tend to stay near their breeding colonies year round. Egg-laying takes place from late April and young fledge from early July onwards.
Pressures and population trends can be found for Outer Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay Complex SPA in the Conservation and Management advice (CMA) document within site 'documents and links' section on Sitelink.
Marine Mammals and Fish
The species accounts for mammals and fish include similar information to that provided in the bird accounts as well as summarised details to the designated sites to which they relate.
Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)
Conservation status
Moray Firth SAC Population at designation: 101-250
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – Bottlenose dolphins in the Firth of Forth are considered to be part of the Coastal East Scotland Management Unit population. The Moray Firth in north-east Scotland supports the only known resident population of bottlenose dolphins in the North Sea. Dolphins are present in the Moray Firth all year round, and, while they range widely, they appear to favour particular areas. They may range further afield and occur regularly in the Firths of Tay, Forth and St Andrews Bay. For this reason, it is difficult to separate consideration of the SAC population from the Coastal East Scotland population. The most recent estimate for the Coastal East Scotland population was in 2013, which estimated 195 animals (95% CI 162-253).
Behaviour – Sightings are usually of small groups of between 2 and 29 individuals within the Firth of Forth, primarily around the southeast coast of Fife. They are most often observed foraging or travelling through an area, occasionally seen breaching. Females can produce a calf approximately every two years, though a three-year interval between calves is most common in the Coastal East Scotland population. In the wild they can live up to 20-50 years. Calves can be born any time of year but there is a slight peak between May – October. Calves have been recorded in the Firth of Forth in recent years.
Diet – A wide range of fish species, squid, crabs and shrimp.
Habitat – Usually seen close inshore rather than far offshore. Limited data means there is little understanding of the relative importance of the Firth of Forth in terms of habitat.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Inshore water |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Absent
- Outer areas - Locally regular or occasional
![Bottlenose dolphin and calf breaching out of the water.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/bottlenose-dolphins-tursiops-truncatus-moray-firth.jpg?itok=HJXx-8cI)
Seasonality – Most records in the Forth have been between May-September, but the limited nature of the data means it is not currently possible to make firm conclusions on how animals may be distributed.
Pressures – Underwater noise from development activity and vessels. Examples include piling, blasting, dredging and seismic survey. Noise propagates more effectively in water and dolphins are dependent on their hearing for social behaviours and for feeding. Different degrees of noise can cause disturbance, displacement, damage to animals hearing and in extreme circumstances death. Because the species is long lived and reproduces slowly, long term chronic pressures (pollution, disturbance) that reduce breeding success can be a significant issue.
Collision (boat strike or propellor strike) – from commercial and/or recreational boat traffic is another little-understood pressure.
Population trends – Numbers appear stable. Modelling has been focused on the Moray Firth population with confidence Intervals of (95% CI)
Harbour seal (Phoca vitulina)
Conservation status
Firth of Tay & Eden Estuary SAC Population at designation: 600
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – Resident
Behaviour – Harbour seals are found on sandflats and estuaries, and on rocky shores in Scotland. As pups swim almost immediately after birth, seals can breed on sheltered tidal areas where banks allow access to deep water. Seals may range widely in search of prey, but individuals often return to favoured haul-out sites. Harbour seals have limited daily foraging ranges of around 20km. They will often remain relatively close to their main haul-out and pupping sites. Over the longer term there is interchange between animals on different haul-outs and there is movement between the Tay and the Forth, but unlike grey seals they generally do not travel very long distances, either for foraging or seasonally. Notable haul-out sites in the Forth include the rocky coastline south of Kirkcaldy and around Inchmickery and nearby smaller islands.
Diet – Fish, marine invertebrates.
Habitat – Rocky shore, sandbanks, open water.
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open Water |
Y |
Y |
Sandbanks |
Y |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
Y |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Uncommon
- Outer areas - Locally common
![Harbour (Common) Seal resting on exposed rocks at low tide.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2024-03/harbour-seal-or-common-seal-phoca-vitulina-resting-on-exposed-rocks-at-low-tide-isle-of-coll.jpg?itok=4ni8bXpx)
Seasonality – Pupping is during June-July followed by an adult moulting period August-September.
Pressures – Underwater noise, disturbance of haul-out sites. Possible contributory factors to the population drop noted below include a general increase in disturbance, changes in prey species abundance or disease. In some areas of the UK predation and unregulated shooting have also be put forward as potential factors in population declines. Harbour seals’ faithfullness to a fairly small home range means that colonies that crash or become extinct may be slow to recover as immigration is uncommon.
Population trends – There has been a substantial reduction in numbers on the east coast. The Firth of Tay and Eden Estuary breeding population dropped by over 90% from over 600 to 40-50 by 2014 but it is not clear what has caused this.
Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus)
Conservation status
Isle of May SAC Population at designation: 5900
Berwickshire and North Northumberland Coast SAC Population at designation: 501-1000
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – Resident
Behaviour – Grey seals forage in the open sea and return regularly to haul out on land where they rest, moult and breed. They may range widely to forage and frequently travel over 100 km between haul-out sites. Foraging trips last anywhere between 1 and 30 days. These can involve long distance movements, with some individuals crossing the North Sea from Britain to the European mainland as far afield as Norway.
Diet – Fish and marine invertebrates.
Habitat
Habitat |
Low tide |
High tide |
---|---|---|
Open water |
Y |
Y |
Intertidal mud |
Y |
- |
Rocky shore |
Y |
- |
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Widespread
- Outer areas - Widespread, common
![Grey seal bull in the water.](/sites/default/files/styles/embedded/public/2023-03/Grey%20seal-1_jpg_JPEG%20Image%20Original%20Size_m42862.jpg?itok=2c1efIZG)
Seasonality – In September to late November females congregate on secluded beaches to pup and are joined by smaller numbers of dominant males who mate with them post-pupping. In some places large numbers of seals at high density are found, such as on the Isle of May. For the remainder of the year, they disperse widely around Scotland and further afield. Numbers are resident within the Forth throughout the year, with main pupping sites at Isle of May, Fast Castle coast, Craigleith and Inchkeith.
Pressures – Underwater noise, disturbance of haul-out sites, fisheries interactions and shooting. Underwater noise impacts similar to those discussed for bottlenose dolphin also apply for both seal species.
Population trends – The Isle of May is the largest east coast breeding colony of grey seals in Scotland and the fourth-largest breeding colony in the UK, contributing approximately 4.5% of annual UK pup production, though Fast Castle coastline has increasingly become an important large breeding colony. Inchkeith and Craigleith islands are also notable grey seal breeding colonies.
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin – The Rivers Forth, Teith, Allan and tributaries.
Behaviour - Atlantic salmon using the Forth have a complex life cycle which begins and ends in freshwater spawning grounds in the catchments of the rivers Forth, Teith, Allan and tributaries. In Scotland Atlantic salmon typically spend around four years as juveniles in freshwater. They progress through several life stages before becoming smolts, migrating downstream and out to sea. Adult salmon spend up to four years growing at sea, then migrate back to the spawning grounds where they came from. This strong homing connection leads to genetically distinct populations.
Fish which spend only one year at sea are called grilse and are relatively small. A proportion of the Atlantic salmon stock may stay at sea for two or three years, in feeding grounds as far away as West Greenland, before returning. The timing of return is important from both a fisheries and conservation perspective. If these fish return to Scottish rivers between the months of January-June, they are referred to as 'spring salmon', and this stock component has shown a long-term decline since records began in 1952.
Diet - Juveniles feed on a wide range of aquatic invertebrates species such as caddisflies, stoneflies and mayflies. Adult Atlantic salmon feed on range of prey items, including marine amphipods, shrimps and squid and include sandeels, capelin and herring.
Habitat – It is thought that Atlantic salmon use inshore waters when migrating through the Firth of Forth rather than the mid-channel. Post-smolt Atlantic salmon typically occupy the upper layers of the water column as they pass out to sea, though this can be variable. Tagged Atlantic salmon typically occupied near-surface habitats during a study on the north coast of Scotland
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Seasonally common
- Outer areas - Seasonally common
Seasonality - Salmon may enter Scotland's rivers throughout the year. Juvenile smolts migrate from river to sea during the months of March to May. Fish that stay at sea for two or three years are known as multi sea winter salmon (MSW). Adults may migrate to their natal rivers at any time of year. Peak spawning occurs between November-December but in some localities such as larger rivers may extend from October - late February.
Pressures - Underwater noise and vibration such as piling, blasting dredging or seismic survey. Noise effects upon fish range from disturbance and displacement, damage to hearing, organs and even immediate death.
Population trends
Data, available from 1952 to present, shows considerable variation in annual abundance. Overall number of recorded Atlantic salmon returning to Scottish rivers increased over recent years but dropped each year since 2010.
The number of salmon retained and released by anglers in the Forth District during the period 1952-2013. (Data MSS, Crown copyright)
Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus)
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin - Sea lamprey live in freshwater as juveniles but migrate to sea to grow into adults. There is no evidence that adult sea lamprey return to their river of origin but may be attracted to suitable rivers by chemical cues from juveniles (ammocoetes). Adults return to the River Teith SAC and freshwater reaches of the River Forth in every year.
Behaviour - Sea lamprey return to British rivers to spawn in gravel or cobbles when the water temperature reaches at least 15ºC. Adults die after spawning is completed. Juvenile sea lamprey (ammocoetes) settle in silt beds within the River Teith SAC for up to five years. They may use deeper habitats in rivers than those of brook or river lamprey, and their abundance in surveys may be under-reported. Sea lamprey typically migrate downstream and to sea in autumn to mid-winter. Most movement occurs during darkness and may be connected to periods of increased water discharge. They spend 18 to 24 months at sea feeding, before migrating back to the River Teith SAC.
Diet - Juveniles are filter feeders. Diet mainly consists of diatoms (algae) and river detritus. Adults are parasitic, using their teeth to attach to cetaceans and large fish to feed on their blood and flesh.
Habitat - As transformers these fish may utilise currents to assist movement, but there is no evidence that adults or transformers are predominantly, or exclusively, found in either inshore or offshore areas. Lamprey ammocoetes can be found wherever suitable habitat is located downstream of spawning sites, including the lower reaches of rivers towards their tidal limits.
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Seasonally common
- Outer areas - Seasonally common
Seasonality - Metamorphosis from juvenile to adult takes place between July and September. Pre-adult sea lamprey migrate from river, through the Firth of Forth to the open sea between October - December. Mature sea lamprey return through the Firth to freshwater to spawn in the rivers Forth and Teith. This can occur as early as April and these fish typically spawn in late May or June.
Pressures – Noise: underwater noise and vibration, though less sensitive than salmon. The most obvious source of these effects are piling and blasting, although the noise associated with other operations may also be significant. Electromagnetic Fields (EMF): Sea lamprey are likely to encounter EMF from subsea cables but it is unclear what impact EMF may have on the movement of emigrating or returning sea lamprey. Water quality: Significant pollution can eliminate whole populations of sea lamprey from rivers and prevent migration. Lighting: Anadromous lampreys avoid the light during the daytime, hiding under rocks or river banks and resuming their upstream movement only during the hours of darkness. Lamprey may be sensitive to non-natural lighting, although this may also be influenced by the availability of cover. Exploitation: no fisheries exist for this species within the UK.
River lamprey (Lampetra fluvialis)
Sitelink provides feature condition assessment details, with feature conservation objectives provided in either a Conservation Advice Package (CAP), Conservation and Management Advice (CMA) or generic Conservation Objectives.
Origin - River lamprey live in freshwater as juveniles but migrate to sea to grow into mature adults. There is no evidence that adult river lamprey return to the same river in which they themselves were spawned but evidence suggests that they are attracted back to rivers through their ability to detect chemical cues from juvenile lamprey. River lamprey adults return to the River Teith SAC in every year. They have also been recorded in freshwater reaches of the a number of other rivers which flow into the Firth of Forth, including the rivers Allan, Devon, Forth and the Water of Leith.
Behaviour - Spawn in nests excavated in clean gravel or cobble substrates in freshwater reaches at water temperature 10-11ºC. Juvenile river lamprey (ammocoetes) disperse into silt beds within the River Teith SAC for three to five years. During this time, river lamprey are indistinguishable from brook lamprey. Transformers migrate downstream in darkness to estuaries. River lamprey may spend a significant part of their adult life within the Firth of Forth and other coastal areas. They may spend 18 to 24 months in coastal waters, before migrating back to the SAC.
Diet - Juvenile river lamprey are filter feeders. Diet mainly consists of microorganisms and river detritus. Adult river lamprey are parasitic, and feed on blood and flesh of other fish. River lamprey can feed for many months in estuarine environments and that the size of lamprey and its host are related, with Clupeids an important prey in the Forth.
Habitat There is evidence that river lamprey may use inshore waters when present in Firth of Forth and be present throughout the Firth.
Distribution
- Inner Forth - Seasonally common
- Outer areas - Seasonally common
Seasonality – River lamprey return to the rivers from coastal and estuarine areas from October to December and typically spawn in late March to May. Metamorphosis from the juvenile to adult form takes place between July and September.
Pressures - Noise: underwater noise and vibration, though less sensitive than salmon. The most obvious source of these effects are piling and blasting, although the noise associated with other operations may also be significant. Electromagnetic Fields (EMF): River lamprey are likely to encounter EMF from subsea cables but it is unclear what impact EMF may have on the movement of emigrating or returning lamprey. Water quality: Significant pollution can eliminate whole populations of lamprey from rivers and prevent migration. Lighting: Anadromous lampreys avoid the light during the daytime, hiding under rocks or river banks and resuming their upstream movement only during the hours of darkness. Lamprey may be sensitive to non-natural lighting, although this may also be influenced by the availability of cover. Exploitation: not exploited in Scotland, but are exploited elsewhere in a limited number of locations within the UK. River lamprey fisheries in the Humber and Yorkshire Ouse catchments are used to supply the angling market. No fish are sold for human consumption.
Further Reading
Further Reading
HRA Process
The Conservation (Natural Habitats & c.) Regulations 1994
Habitats Regulations Appraisal
European Guidance
Birds
Bird discussion and species accounts in this document are based on SNH Commissioned Report 804: A review of literature on the qualifying interest species of Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in the Firth of Forth and development related influences which contains a comprehensive reference list.
Eaton M, Aebischer N, Brown A, Hearn R, Lock L, Musgrove A, Noble D, Stroud D & Gregory R (2015) Birds of Conservation
Concern 4: the population status of birds in the UK, Channel Islands and Isle of Man. British Birds 108: 708–746
Marine Mammals
Cheney, B., Graham, I.M., Barton, T.R., Hammond, P.S. and Thompson, P.M. 2014. Site
Condition Monitoring of bottlenose dolphins within the Moray Firth Special Area of
Conservation: 2011-2013. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 797.
Quick, N., Arso, N, Cheney, B, Islas, V, Janik, V, Thompson P. M. and Hammond, P
The east coast of Scotland bottlenose dolphin population: Improving understanding of ecology outside the Moray Firth SAC
UK Department of Energy and Climate Change offshore energy Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) programme.
Russell, D. J. F., McConnell, B., Thompson, D., Duck, C., Morris, C., and Harwood, P.
and Jason Mathiopoulos – Uncovering the links between foraging and breeding regions in a
highly mobile mammal Journal of Applied Ecology 2013, 50, 499-509.
Wilson, D. R. B. 1995. The ecology of bottlenose dolphins in the Moray Firth, Scotland : a population at the northern extreme of the species' range – Aberdeen University Thesis.
Fish
Bergstedt, R. A. & Seelye, J. G.1995. Evidence for lack of homing by sea lamprey. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 124, 235–239.
Gaudron, S. M. & Lucas, M. C. 2006. First evidence of attraction of adult river lamprey in the migratory phase to larval odour. Journal of Fish Biology, 68, 640–644.
Gill, A.B. & Bartlett, M. 2010. Literature review on the potential effects of electromagnetic fields and subsea noise from marine renewable energy developments on Atlantic salmon, sea trout and European eel. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No.401
Godfrey, J.D., Stewart, D.C., Middlemas, S.J. & Armstrong, J.D. 2014. Depth use and movements of homing Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Scottish coastal waters in relation to marine renewable energy development. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science Vol 05, No 18
Hardisty, M.W. 2013. Biology of the Cyclostomes. Springer, London.
Maitland, P.S. 2003. Ecology of the River, Brook and Sea Lamprey. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers Ecology Series No. 5. English Nature, Peterborough.
Maitland, P.S., Morris, K.H. East, K., Schoonoord, M. P., van der Wal, B. & Potter, I.C. 1984. The estuarine biology of the River lamprey, Lampetra fluviutilis, in the Firth of Forth, Scotland, with particular reference to size composition and feeding. Journal of the Zoological Society of London, 203, 211-225.
Malcolm, I.A., Godfrey, J. & Youngson, A.F. 2010. Review of migratory routes and behaviour of Atlantic salmon, sea trout and European eel in Scotland’s coastal environment: implications for the development of marine renewables. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science 1: No 14.
Riley W.D., Bendall B., Ives M.J., Edmonds N.J. & Maxwell D.L. 2012. Street lighting disrupts the diel migratory pattern of wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., smolts leaving their natal stream. Aquaculture, 330-333, 74-81.
Smith, I.P. & Smith, G.W. 1997. Tidal and diel timing of river entry by adult Atlantic salmon returning to the Aberdeenshire Dee, Scotland. Journal of Fish Biology 50, 463–474.
Vrieze, L. A. & Sorensen, P. W. 2001. Laboratory assessment of the role of a larval pheromone and natural stream odor in spawning stream localization by migratory sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 58, 2374–2385.
Annex 1: Glossary for Conservation Objectives and References
Conservation Objective term |
Definition |
---|---|
Distribution |
The “distribution” is how the qualifying feature is spread out within the site. |
Favourable condition |
This refers to the assessed condition of a feature through Site Condition Monitoring. Features considered to be in favourable condition for the purposes of these Conservation Objectives are those that have an assessed condition of either: Favourable declining - The attribute targets set for the natural feature have been met, but evidence suggests that its condition will worsen unless remedial action is taken. Favourable Maintained - the attribute targets set for the natural features have been met, and the natural feature is likely to be secure on the site under present conditions. Favourable Recovered - the condition of the natural feature has recovered from a previous unfavourable condition, and attribute targets are now being met. |
Generation length |
Generation length is “the average age of parents of the current cohort”. Generation length therefore reflects the turnover rate of breeding individuals in a population (IUCN, 2019). |
Maintain |
Where a qualifying feature of the SPA is assessed as being in favourable condition the conservation objective is ‘maintain’. This means that the various attributes of the feature should be kept at that favourable level. This can include increasing/improving condition as well, but not a permanent decline. |
Marine birds |
This term encompasses true seabirds and waterfowl (seaducks, divers, and grebes). |
Metapopulation |
A group of connected populations of a species within a defined area, where the individual populations may interact with one another. |
Restore |
Where a qualifying feature of the SPA is assessed as being in unfavourable condition the conservation objective is ‘restore’. This means that the various attributes of the feature should be returned to the favourable level by increasing/improving condition. |
Site integrity |
The integrity of a site is defined in general terms as the coherence of its ecological structures and function, across its whole area, which enables it to sustain the habitat, complex of habitats and and/or the levels of populations of the species for which it was designated. |
Site reference population |
This refers to the estimated population figure for the site and should be used to form the basis of carrying out HRAs. In most cases, the site reference population will be the baseline population (figure at designation). However, where recent surveys show a population to have increased or stayed stable, the current population is considered the most appropriate population figure to use for HRA’s. |
Supporting habitats and processes |
This includes the following environmental conditions (but is not limited to) which are important for maintaining/restoring the protected features, e.g. hydrography and supporting water currents, chemical water quality parameters, suspended sediment levels, radionuclide levels. |
Unfavourable condition |
This refers to the assessed condition of a feature through Site Condition Monitoring. Features considered to be in unfavourable condition for the purposes of these Conservation Objectives are those that have an assessed condition of either: Unfavourable recovering - One or more of the attribute targets have not been met on the site, but management measures are in place to improve the condition. Unfavourable no change - One or more of the attribute targets have not been met, and recovery is unlikely under the present management and activity on the site. Unfavourable declining - One or more of the attribute targets have not been met, evidence suggests that condition will worsen unless remedial action is taken. |
Waterfowl |
Encompasses seaducks, grebes and divers. |
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